PhotoSim By Galadriel Chilton and Gretchen Regehr

Overview | Instructional Objective | Learners | Context | Scope |Object of Game | Design Details

Competing Products | Motivational Issues | Design Process | References

Overview

Composition is a key part of creating visually appealing images, it is "the process of identifying and arranging the elements to produce a coherent image" (Prakel, 2006, p. 15). Learning techniques of composition is like learning a language and the goal of PhotoSim is to help learners become "fluent in the language of composition" (Prakel, 2006, p. 15).

Teaching the language of composition through new learning technologies and online simulation, can create the "perfect storm" for motivating aspiring young photographers to learn composition techniques and help students learn how to see - to have a photographer's eye.

In PhotoSim, learners will go through brief interactive tutorials to learn about composition techniques. They would move into the Teen Second Life PhotoSim area to practice via various scenarios to create images that match specific criteria and objectives. Imagine having a scene where you can move the trees, rocks, flowers and other elements in order to achieve a successful perspective using photography's rule of thirds. Learners can devise what might be the perfect arrangement of elements for their photos

Additionally, learners will practice on static, immovable scenes, and will take snapshots from varying perspectives to test their skills and to assess their peers' use of the techniques. Using Second Life's snapshot capacity, learners will practice their skills in the practice scenes and throughout Teen Second Life.

Finally, the learners will have the opportunity to share their photographs and best examples of the photographic techniques in a critique of their work. Following the peer review and the instructor's input, the best examples and non-examples will be displayed in a photo exhibition where students will celebrate with a virtual or real world exhibit opening/celebration.

Instructional Objective

After completing the elements of the simulation, the high school photography student will be able to:

1. Demonstrate application of the rule of thirds in their Teen Second Life snapshots.
2. Create examples and non-examples of merging to demonstrate the concept of avoiding merging.
3. Critique their peer's composition techniques by evaluating their peer's SL snapshots.

PhotoSim is specifically for 9-12 grade students. Not only could PhotoSim be incorporated into an art class, but it also fits within two visual arts standards for high school:

• Content Standard 1: Understanding and applying media, techniques, and processes
  
  
• Content Standard 5: Reflecting upon and assessing the characteristics and merits of their work and the work of others
  

Learners

PhotoSim is designed to be a learning module for 9th through 12th grade students taking and introductory photography class. Composition of photographs is a component of all introductory photography classes along with elements such as the history of photography, digital and SLR camera operation, as well as developing photographs in a real world or digital darkroom.

• Sample high school photography class descriptions:
  
  
  • Fluvanna County High School
    
    
  • Waunakee Community High School

Context of Use

PhotoSim can be used on any computer with a high-speed Internet connection and by any student who has a Teen Second Life account. For example, students could work individually at their school's computer labs or on a home or library computer that has Teen Second Life access. To be used in a school, computers would need to have Second Life software installed and students would need to create a Teen Second Life account.

As photo composition is a skill that is refined with practice, students can use PhotoSim as often as desired; however, PhotoSim is designed to be a learning module for a high school photography classes. Before students use PhotoSim, they should have learned background information about photography such as a brief history and had the opportunity to view many kinds of photographs either online, in slideshows, or in books. For example, students should understand some basic photography concepts including types of photographs: landscape, portrait, and close-up.

During their work in PhotoSim, students will learn specifically about two photo composition techniques: avoiding mergers and the rule of thirds. Then students will practice both creating scenes with SL objects to compose and take a SL snapshot, and using SL Camera Controls to compose and take SL snapshots of static scenes with the goal of using the rule of thirds and avoiding mergers.

After using PhotoSim for these initial aspects of the simulation, students submit their best images for peer and instructor critique.

Images could be printed and turned in, saved to a network folder, or depending on the teacher's proclivity for new technologies, could utilize an online photo storing and viewing application such as Flickr. Students would critique one another's SL snapshots in terms of how well the two techniques - the rule of thirds and avoidance of merging -were demonstrated as well as the image's overall visual appeal.

Second Life's Camera Controls allow users to pan, zoom,
and tilt so that they can control their composition just like with a
'real world' camera.

Scope

The PhotoSim simulation will take place over two class periods in Teen Second Life. The entire simulation can be completed in 3 to 4 hours. The first few elements in the simulation will be self-guided and includes an individual, self-led tutorial; however, upon returning to Teen Second Life learner's will have the opportunity to interact with PhotoSim instructors and peers.

An approximate breakdown of the timeframes for the activities is as follows:

1. Teleportation to PhotoSim, receipt of initial notecard with link to tutorial and completion of tutorial: 1 hour
2. Practice scenarios, criteria completion, saving/uploading snapshots taken in Teen Second Life to a shared folder on a local network or to Flickr: 1.5 hours
3. Peer review and comments: 1 hour
4. Exhibition: 1 hour

Key elements of the simulation include:

1. Greeting and notecard in Teen Second Life's PhotoSim location
2. Self-Paced Tutorial
3. Return to Teen Second Life to interact and practice composition techniques with scenarios
4. Learners take snapshots using the Second Life snapshot tool in both scenarios and then throughout Teen Second Life
5. Learners save best examples of photos meeting composition technique criteria for peer/instructor critique and exhibition submission.
6. Learner's return to Teen Second Life PhotoSim location or to their real world classroom if preferred for a photo exhibition and exhibition opening celebration.

Content in this simulation is comprised of:

• A Welcome Object
  Scripted to greet learners and to offer a notecard which contains introductory information on the learner's objectives for this simulation, followed by a link to the tutorial.
  
  
• Tutorial
  An interactive module introducing and explaining the concepts of the two photographic techniques: avoiding merging and the rule of thirds.
  
  
• Teen Second Life Scenarios
  One with moveable elements for individual composition choices, one with static elements.
  
  
• Examples & Non Examples
  Examples and non examples of the composition techniques being demonstrated in Teen Second Life will be demonstrated in the initial tutorial and again through the initial notecards received in Second Life. The notecards will contain links to web pages with explanatory text as well as example and non-example images.
  
  
• Criteria for Photos
  This is explained in the notecards received in Second Life.
  
  
• Second Life Exhibition Boards or Exhibition PowerPoint
  Scripted exhibition boards with rotating pictures of the winning entries. Alternatively, if the photo exhibition is taking place in the classroom, the photos could be displayed in print or via an automated PowerPoint presentation.

Content that will be excluded will be information or references to particular cameras, or any camera use specifics.

Object of the Game

The object of PhotoSim is to provide a low-cost, concept and student-centered method for students to learn and demonstrate their understanding of the two photo techniques described in the tutorial: avoiding merging and the rule of thirds. Students will engage in a friendly competition with their peers as they submit their images with hopes of having their work displayed in a culminating image exhibit.

Design Details

Universal Elements

The simulation will take place primarily in Teen Second Life with additional activity occurring in an e-learning module as well as either in a local network folder or in an online photo sharing application. The look and feel will be consistent with Teen Second Life activities with default sound and day/night cycles.

The students will enter Teen Second Life after setting up their accounts, creating their avatars, and moving through Help Island to ensure basic skills for moving through Teen Second Life. Before using PhotoSim, students should have received basic instruction on how to move objects and use the Second Life snapshot tool.

If the class will be using a shared network folder for sharing their images and for conducting the peer review, students will also need to receive instructions on naming conventions and saving procedures for using the shared folder.

If the class will be utilizing an online photo sharing application such as Flickr, a brief classroom tutorial and job aid providing step by step instructions on uploading and providing peer reviews according to the rating system is suggested.

Specific Elements

• Notecard and Greeting
  Upon teleportation to the PhotoSim location, students will be greeted by a coded prim. Additionally, they will be offered a notecard with the details of how PhotoSim works. This notecard will direct the students to a URL for the e-learning tutorial.
  
  
  Notecard
  Congratulations on arriving in PhotoSim! Here you will have the opportunity to let your creative juices flow, and to demonstrate your understanding of the composition techniques that you've been learning about. Here's how PhotoSim will progress:
  
  

  • First, complete the PhotoSim Composition Tutorial (link to tutorial would be here).
    
  • Proceed to the Create Your Own Composition Scenario. You will get a notecard at the sign board to tell you what to do.
    
  • Go to the Immovable Objects Scenario; here you will again have an opportunity to pick up a notecard with directions on how to proceed.
    
  • Spend some time exploring Teen Second Life. You will have the opportunity to take pictures in-world to enter into the class photo exhibition. So get ready to explore and to capture the sites of Teen Second Life for your peers to see!
    
    
    
  
  
• E-Learning Tutorial
  Using the e-learning tutorial, students will be exposed to a brief introduction to photography. The tutorial content will include a brief history of photography and will introduce the students to basic photograph types (i.e. landscape, portraits, still life, action, and close-up). The tutorial will also provide information on two composition techniques that will be the focus of PhotoSim: the rule of thirds and avoiding mergers. This module will be self-paced, artistically designed with navigation that easily allows the student to move back and forth between the sections to review examples and non-examples. Upon completion, the students will be directed to reenter Teen Second Life.
  
  
• Practice Scenarios-User Manipulability and Default State
  

• Immovable Objects Scenario
  In this practice scenario, the students cannot move any of the prims in the scene (default state, non-manipulable). Instead, they must move around the scenario in order to change the perspective that will be shown in their photographs.
  

Example of a backdrop with static natural objects as a possible Immovable
Objects Scenario. The options for backdrop color and texture are endless and could
mimic a photography studio's backdrop or not.

Though the objects are immovable, students could include their
avatar or the avatars of their peers in their Second Life snapshots.

• Immovable Objects Notecard
  As in the first practice scenario, the Immovable Objects Scenario will have a signboard at its entry which will offer a notecard with the specific criteria that the student's should attempt to achieve in this scenario.

• Create Your Own Composition Scenario
  This practice scenario is designed with moveable objects (user manipulable). In this scenario, the students will have the opportunity to apply what they have just learned about composition, and specifically about the two techniques-rule of thirds and avoiding mergers. The prims can be moved around within a defined area in order for students to practice taking snapshots and demonstrating their understanding of the two concepts.

  Learners can use items available to compose a scene, or they can use items that they have in their own inventories. One of the benefits of the Create Your Own Composition Scenario is that it gives students the freedom to create real and surreal images.
  

By creating scenes in Second Life, students will have the
freedom to exercise their creativity in unreal ways.

Students can use a variety of objects to compose
their own scenarios.

• Create Your Own Composition Notecard
  Approaching the scenario, the students will come upon a signboard with the name of the scenario. The signboard will instruct the students to get the notecard offered by the prim. The notecard will provide the students with the basic criteria for composing their shots, as well as instructions on saving the snapshots from Teen Second Life.

• Snapshots in Teen Second Life
  As noted above, students will be asked to explore Teen Second Life and take snapshots that will demonstrate their understanding of the two photo composition techniques (user manipulability). They will be asked to portray both examples of the techniques and non-examples.

By being able to manipulate objects in Teen Second Life,
students will be able to easily demonstrate merging.

• Saving Best Examples and Non-Examples to Shared Network Folder or Uploading to Flickr
  Upon completion of the first round of activities in Teen Second Life, students will save/upload their best examples of the types of photos required to the selected means of sharing examples. Whether this is through shared folders on their school's local network or a class Flickr account, sub-folders with the following specific photostreams or categories should be as follows:
  
  PhotoSim Scenarios:
  
  
  1. Rule of Thirds-Good Examples
  2. Rule of Thirds-Bad Examples
  3. Examples of Avoiding Merging and Merging

  
  Teen Second Life Locations:

  1. Rule of Thirds-Good Examples
  2. Rule of Thirds-Bad Examples
  3. Examples of Avoiding Merging and Merging
     
     
• Peer Review in Flickr
  Students will have the opportunity to critique and comment on their peer's photos. The students will be providing comments based on the criteria specified. The students will view their peer's photos, whether on a photo-sharing application, or using locally shared folders, and complete online peer review forms with the evaluation criteria in a simple rubric.
  
  
• The instructor will add additional comments and ratings and tally the peer ratings of the images. Then the instructor will select the highest-rated entries and share them through one of the methods chosen below in the exhibition section.
  
  
• Peer Review Rubric
  
  

  	6-10	2-5	1	Comments
  Rule of Thirds	Main subject is clearly on the intersection of the one third or two thirds position.	The main subject is not in the direct center of the frame, but not exactly along the one thirds or two thirds intersection.	The main subject of the photo is in the center of the photo.
  Avoidance of Mergers	There were no areas of the photo that could be perceived as merging.	There were some areas of the photo that could be perceived as merging.	Background and foreground images merge.
  Overall Composition	The photo is well composed and eye-catching.	The photo is fairly well composed and interesting.	The photo is not well composed.
  Scores				Overall Score:

  
  
  
• Photo Exhibition and Celebration
  Following the peer review, the students and instructor will meet for a photo exhibition. This can take place several ways: 1. In PhotoSim or 2. In the classroom.
  
  Elements of the exhibition and celebration can include:
  
  
  
  • PhotoSim:
    
    
    • Festively decorated location, party elements-balloons, a cake, etc.

    
    
    Example exhibit decorations in Second Life.

    • Billboards with rotating slide shows demonstrating most highly rated photos in each category PhotoSim Scenarios:
      
      
      • PhotoSim Scenarios:
        
        
        1. Rule of Thirds-Good Examples
        2. Rule of Thirds-Bad Examples
        3. Examples of Merging
           
           

      • Teen Second Life Locations:

        1. Rule of Thirds-Good Examples
        2. Rule of Thirds-Bad Examples
        3. Examples of Merging
           
           
  • Classroom Exhibition
    
    
    • A PowerPoint presentation with the highest rated examples featured according to the categories listed above.
      
      
    • Prizes and or other recognition for highest rated examples.
      
      
    • Other celebratory elements-balloons, music etc.
      

 Technical Elements: Software

• Teen Second Life
  The introduction to PhotoSim, access to the tutorial, practice scenarios will take place in Teen Second Life. The students will need to have a working understanding of the basics of movement in Teen Second Life, and will need to be able to take snapshots and save them to their computer.
  
  
• Rapid Development e-Learning Authoring Tool
  The Photo Composition tutorial will be built in Outstart's Trainer, a rapid development e-learning tool which allows for numerous interactive possibilities and for self-paced navigation through the material. This tutorial will be accessed from one of the notecards that will be offered to the student's avatars in Teen Second Life.
  
  
• Saving/Uploading Images for Peer Review
  Students will be asked to upload their photos which best meet the specified criteria throughout various parts of the simulation to either a photo-sharing application or a local network with shared folders accessible to all in the class.
  
  
  • Local Network or Shared Folders
    If the students will be utilizing a shared folder or folders for the peer review, there will need to be an explanation or job aids supporting accessing the appropriate folders.
    
    
  • Photo Sharing Application
    If the class will be utilizing an online photo sharing application such as Flickr, a brief classroom tutorial and job aid providing step by step instructions on uploading and providing peer review according to the rating system is suggested.
    
    

Competing Products

Numerous websites offer photography composition tips; however, these websites are usually limited to text and photographs that illustrate incorrect or correct application of composition rules.

• KODAK: Beginnings of Photographic Composition
  
  
• Composition
  
  
• Fodor's Focus on Photography: Composition
  
  
• Digital Photography Composition Tips
  

While these websites are able to show and explain elements of photography composition, they are not interactive. Learners could use these websites as informational sources, and then grab a camera to practice composition - learning the concepts and practice are not linked as they are in PhotoSim..

PhotoSim also provides the opportunity to interact with peers and the instructor in Teen Second Life for improving critical skills. Students will be able to provide critiques of the example photos and carry on discussion in real time about the photos, but also be able to observe their peers interacting with the practice scenario.

Another competing product is Twin Pilots' Windows-only software program called Composition Pilot. When Composition Pilot is open, it provides a transparent frame that overlays over images opened in Photoshop, Picasa, Fireworks or any other image editing program. Users can set Composition Pilot to show guidelines for composition elements such as the rule of thirds, the golden section, dynamic diagonals, or dynamic diagonals and the golden section.

Image opened in Photoshop with Composition Pilot activated
as an overlay to show the rule of thirds grid.

Unfortunately, Composition Pilot is quite limited. Not only is it a Windows-only software, but the transparent window is for editing horizontal images and cannot be adjusted for editing vertical photos. Additionally, while users can display guidelines for various composition strategies, explanations of these strategies and why their use can help create visually dynamic images are not included.

Advantages of PhotoSim include:

• Explanations and Interaction
  PhotoSim includes explanations for composition guidelines as well as guided practice.
  
  
• No Camera or Film Required
  Because students will be using Second Life's snapshot tool, they will not need cameras or film. This is advantageous because while most schools have enough computers for all students in an art class (i.e. a lab with 25 machines), few have enough SLR or digital cameras for each student.
  
  
• Parallel Perspectives
  Just like a 'real world' camera, the Camera Controls in Second Life facilitate wide-angle and close-up perspectives, and the means to view objects in a different light.

Motivational Issues

PhotoSim is a student-centered learning environment supported by a photo composition framework of examples, non-examples, explanations, and student-controlled practice.

Many high school students and young adults are highly computer literate and very interested in and motivated to utilize social software and social networks. This age group is typically not intimidated by any learning curve that utilization of these social applications might represent.

Second Life may be a particularly compelling for this age group because of the physical presence it allows and the opportunity to define a persona that they feel represents them, something that most social networking applications do not offer.

This simulation and its motivational aspects clearly relate to Keller's ARCS model:

Attention
Attention, which is considered the most crucial aspect of the ARCS model, and is the first element in Gagne's Nine Events of Instruction, is an important factor behind the motivation for high school students using this simulation. Students will be taking pictures and applying their learning in what is likely an entirely new and very social way. The opportunity to have a physical presence in Second Life and to move through scenarios independently and uniquely will gain their attention.

This carries through in particular to the practice scenario in which the students can create their own setting. At this point in time, students may achieve a sense of flow as they experience the stress or anxiety around the opportunity and requirement of building a scenario that satisfies the stated criteria, while also finding the excitement and pleasure in this creative challenge.

Relevance
This age group may be motivated by the opportunity to learn new skills in photography. With the ubiquitousness of digital cameras and digital imagery and the opportunity to share them socially, the motivation to achieve higher levels of artistic standards in this medium is relevant.

Confidence
Confidence is an achievable element of this simulation. The techniques are accessible and not overly difficult. The steps of the simulation are broken down into moderately sized tasks and activities, lessening any sense of being overwhelmed that students might feel in looking at the full simulation.

Satisfaction
Students will have tangible evidence of their comprehension of the material being taught in this simulation which should lead to a sense of satisfaction.

Furthermore, another outcome that is a result of participation in this simulation is that students will likely have improved their use of online applications, skills which may prove beneficial in other areas, thus leading to a greater sense of satisfaction.

In addition to being cognizant of Keller's ARCS model, we also sought examples of researchers reporting that student-centered, computer-based instruction could enhance our target students' intrinsic motivation.

In 2002, Jones investigated the motivation of 10th grade biology students learning about ecology via traditional classroom methods compared to students interacting with the same content by creating ecology websites. Jones used results from motivational questionnaires, achievement tests, student attitude questionnaires, and teacher interviews to conclude that students "who designed Web sites were more motivated than students in traditional classes and they learned a similar amount of [ecology] subject matter" while also enhancing their computer skills and facilitating student-preferred group work (2002, p. 458).

The author notes that "Researchers have found that students are more intrinsically motivated when they are able to choose which tasks to engage in and decide how much time to allot for each" (Jones, 2002, p. 444). Therefore, we designed PhotoSim so that students can make choices about what they will engage in first and for how long.

Wang and Reeves also investigated the use of a web-based learning environment and used teacher and student interviews, surveys, and classroom observations to gauge student learning and motivation (2007). In their study, the researchers focused on how use of a web-based learning environment on fossilization affected 10th grade science students' motivation.

When analyzing student motivation, the authors noted that other research results show that challenging students, giving them control over their learning environment and, as applicable, providing a fantasy environment to evoke mental images can all increase students' intrinsic motivation. Results of the researchers' data analysis within this framework of challenge, control, and fantasy, showed that the fossilization web-based learning environment did interest and motivate students more than when the material was taught without the web module: "For many students, their sense that they controlled their own learning process also enhanced their motivation to learn. If they encountered difficulties with something, they could decide to observe the animation over and over again" (Wang & Reeves, 2007, p. 184).

We designed PhotoSim to include elements of student control, challenge, and fantasy. Students will have control over how long and how often they use PhotoSim and they will be able to have two levels of control when it comes to composing their snapshots:

1. Determining the angle, viewpoint, and zoom level when taking snapshots of static scenes, and
2. Arranging scene objects (i.e. trees, portrait dummies, etc.) and lighting to create their ideal composition.

The ability to move objects such as trees that are not moveable in real world and the ability for learners to create their photographer's persona - avatar - are fantasy elements that we expect to increase creativity and learner motivation.

Where there are aspects of control and fantasy, PhotoSim includes challenges. Students will have the challenge of using their control to refine a scene in order to create a visual interesting, well-composed image.

Striving for the reward of having their images in the culminating exhibition is another way in which PhotoSim is designed to motivate students to participate and learn. The competition element of PhotoSim should motivate students since they will be trying to compose engaging images that only meet specific criteria, but will also earn high ratings from their peers and the instructor.

Design Process

The initial idea of the project was that we wanted to utilize the snapshot affordances in Second Life. With further experience and exploration of the capacities of this affordance, we were happy to find even more sophisticated camera controls than we originally thought were possible and more closely matched the panning/zooming/positioning possibilities of a real world camera. One of our initial tentative drawbacks was that we assumed that we would not be able to take snapshots without the avatar in the frame, or that desired perspectives would not be achievable. By experimenting with SL's Camera Controls, we found that not only were various perspectives possible, but that many real-life photo composition techniques, including portraits, close-ups, and birds-eye view photos could be achieved.

We felt that the issue of motivation was easily addressed. The target audience is typically interested in, and motivated to use, social networking applications, and fear of new technologies is generally low. Furthermore, we felt that including a peer competition element would also engage and excite learners.

One of our early challenges was how to scope the project so that it would not be too broad and would not exceed the capabilities of SL's snapshot tool. Therefore, we limited to just the two composition elements: avoiding mergers and the rule of thirds.

Another concern was that the quality of images uploaded to SL would be so poor that example and non example images as well as the peer review and judging would not be possible. Therefore, we concluded that example images would need to reside on web pages outside of SL, but be accessible via links in scenario notecards. Additionally, while students could take snapshots in SL they would need to be viewed and critiqued in another manner such as via a shared network folder or a shared Flickr pool depending on the teacher's preference. Either solution would resolve the low resolution issue and also would allow the students to critique one another's photos.

Our prior work in Second Life certainly supported the brainstorming and development ideas. Several of the concepts that we knew that we could accomplish include:

• The creation of a practice scenario with immovable objects that would be locked together.
  
  
• A scenario with moveable objects (although this does require explanation and monitoring so that students do not inadvertently remove objects, or change their properties).
  
  
• The development of panels that allow for rotating or cycling display of photos that demonstrate the specified criteria.

In designing PhotoSim, it was also very important to us that the simulation be based not only be based on motivational theory (i.e. Keller's ARCS model), but also on research showing that high school students are motivated by and learn content when using online, computer-based simulations. By referring to research results reported by Jones (2002) as well as Wang & Reeves (2007) we were able to support PhotoSim as a viable learning medium for our target audience.

References

Books & Journals

• Deimann, M. & Keller, J.M. (2006).Volitional aspects of multimedia learning. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia 15(2), 137-158.
  
  
• Jonas, P. (1961). Guide to photographic composition. New York: University Photo Books.
  
  
• Jones, B. (2002). Students as web site authors: Effects on motivation and achievement. Journal of Educational Technology Systems, 31(4) 441-461. Retrieved November 26, 2007 from the EBSCOhost Professional Development Collection database.
  
  
• Keller, J. M. (2007). An integrative theory of motivation, volition, and performance. In Technology, Instruction, Cognition, and Learning. Manuscript submitted for publication.
  
  
• Prakel, D. (2006). Composition. Basics photography. Lausanne: AVA Academia.
  
  
• Wang, S., & Reeves, T. (2007). The effects of a web-based learning environment on student motivation in a high school earth science course. Educational Technology Research & Development, 55(2), 169-192. Retrieved November 26, 2007, from the ProQuest Education Module database.
  
  
• Wolf, H. (1988). Visual thinking methods for making images memorable. New York: American Showcase.

Electronic

• Digital Photography School. (2006/2007). Digital Photography Composition Tips. Retrieved November 11, 2007 from http://digital-photography-school.com/blog/digital-photography-composition-tips/.
  
  
• Fodor's. (2007). Focus on Photography: Composition. Retrieved November 11, 2007 from http://www.fodors.com/focus/focselect.cfm?catid=9.
  
  
• KODAK. (n.d.) Beginnings of Photographic Composition. Retrieved November 11, 2007 from http://asp.photo.free.fr/Composition/photoProgramCompMainClass.shtml.
  
  
• Kruse, K. (n.d.) The Magic of Learner Motivation: The ARCS Model. Retrieved December 1, 2007 from http://www.e-learningguru.com/articles/art3_5.htm.
  
  
• Lawrence, G. (n.d.) Composition. Photo Composition Articles. Retreived November 11, 2007 from http://photoinf.com/General/Geoff_Lawrence/Composition.html.
  
  
• Sweeney, R. (2006, December 22). Millennial Behaviors & Demographics. Retrieved September 28, 2007, from http://library1.njit.edu/staff-folders/sweeney/Millennials/Article-Millennial-Behaviors.doc.